1.The atom is like a small copy of solar system,having a nucleus with electrons orbiting around it like the planets going round the sun.Generally the nucleus has protons and each having a positive charge,and neutrons.The number of protons decides the atomic number of an element.The atomic weight or mass of an atom constitute by protons and neutrons together.Each orbiting electron has a negative charge balancing the positive charges of the protons.The number of protons is balanced by that of the neutrons.The heavy nucleus uranium is made up of 92 protons giving the atomic number of 92 to the element,plus 146 neutrons making an atomic weight of 238.Where imbalance occur,as in uranium atom,the nucleus becoming more stable and in the process gives off energy in the form of alpha particles identical with the helium nucleus.So losing four units of atomic weight and 2 positive charges of uranium 238.becomes thorium 234 and releasing beta particles/electrons or gamma rays similar to x-rays,or both.Fission of an atom or fusion of 2 atoms can release a tremendous amount of energy bringing about explosion.When harnessed it can be used for constructive processes.
2.In a fusion reaction,release of energy comes with fusion of lighter nucleides to build up new elements of greater atomic weight at temperature of millions of degrees centigrade.The fission reaction bringing about the explosion and release of lot of energy is caused by introducing an additional neutron into already unstable nucleus of uranium 235.This splits the nucleus into two unequal parts producing lighter elements and their isotopes.In the process of spiting 2 or 3 neutrons are thrown off with 2 gamma rays those bombard nearing nucleus and make a chain releasing a huge amount of energy.There are at least 40 ways in which the atom of uranium 235 may split producing 200 or more isotopes of 35 lighter elements each of which has an atomic weight close to 95 or 139.
3. Ionising radiations are produced by nuclear fission,radioactive elements.materials,isotopes and contaminated materials including nuclear wastes,radiated waste materials,vegetation,fall-outs and etc. and also those from x-rays,fluoroscope and medical isotopes.They are gaining importance in human ecology since they are produced more and more,transported.handled and used in reactors ,industry,medical tests and treatment and warfare.They are emitted in the environments in the form of wastes,dusts,vapours,fumes,effluents and fallout.The threat by a nuclear weopen or an atom bomb overwhelms our imagination due to the dramatic sadness of the mass destruction,sufferings and ill effects and thus engaged our attention.The hazards from exposure while handling nuclear substances for peaceful purposes are constantly present and are increasing and dangerous equally combined with more use.It is ,there fore,health education to public is necessary to clearly understand the nature
of hazards and protection against them and act when necessary.4.The fusion and fission reactions complement each other in an explosion such as the one that happens with hydrogen bomb.The highly temperature is necessary for fusion to take place can only be attained by a fission explosion.So also certain fission reactions release neutrons which makes the fission of uranium or plutonium.so adding the total energy release of the combined fission-fusion system present in the thermonuclear weapon.By controlling the chain reactions with fission and fusion the energy out put can be controlled and harnessed for other uses than as a weapon of war.the radiation emitted by the radioactive elements involved in such reactions affect biological environs as well.
5.Our knowledge of the biological effects of radiation has been known over the last 90 years through the experience in the fields of early x-ray workers,painters,patients who have been administered radium salts and high doses during radiation ,uranium miners,atomic bomb survivors in Japan,victims of reactor accidents and children whose mothers received radiation exposure during pregnancy.Human experience being limited,we have to mostly rely on animal experiments.The biological effects are external or internal somatic and genetic.Somatic effects are manifested in the person himself soon after exposure to radiation or exhibited after a latent period of several years. A genetic injury may not affect the exposed person but due to the damage to the genetic tissues causing the 'gene mutations' and pregnancy suffers.The external hazards most probably from the penetrating gamma rays and neutrons ;beta particles those causing burns on the bare skin and ordinary clothes stopping them and alpha rays can not penetrate the tissue.Internal hazard comes due to the entry of radioactive substances into the body through inhalation of radioactive dusts and vapours and ingestion of radio-active materials or absorption through cuts and wounds.The effects due to internal radiation are more serious.It gets lodged in the bone for many years and together with its products gives off alpha.beta and gamma radiations,damaging vital tissues in the bone.Whole body exposure is the most dangerous.The total effect depends on the nature of radiation,length of retention in tissues,the radiation it emits,the total radiation dose,the period over which it is spread,and etc.Neural,reproductive and gastrointestinal tissues are particularly radio-active,and acute exposure received over a short period is more injurious than the intermittent radiation.
6.The early effects of an acute whole body exposure may occur in reactor accidents or nuclear war,depend on the dose received.A small percentage of people exposed to a small dose.i.e 50-200 rem may vomit with in a day.Some may feel weakness and some may show decreased blood count.Every one exposed to a moderate dose i.e.200-450 rem will have radiation sickness with vomiting soon after exposure and will be sick for few days.For doses less than 50 rem no symptoms may occur.At 450 rem about half of the number of persons exposed will die.An exposed person will have a 50-50 chance of survival.With increasing doses the sickness becomes more acute and with a dose of 600 rem the chance of survival is very rare.If the doses are divided and much radiation can be tolerated as experienced in cases of very ill patients suffering from incurable cancer.Early effects of on some of the vital functions of the body are central nervous system,Gastro-intestinal tract,bone marrow,Lymph nodes and skin.Late effects can occur after chronic or acute exposures and symptoms may be manifested after many months or years.They include ageing,life shortening,sterility,cancer,developmental defects and etc.The large scale of usage of atomic power in the field of industry medicine and agriculture is inevitable and more people will have to live and work in intimate contact with ionizing radiations.The mental health problems that may occur among workers in atomic reactors,chemical plants and allied nuclear industries are of immediate importance.Food and water are not spoiled by radiation,but contamination by radio-active materiel from accidents in reactor or fallout from nuclear bursts makes them dangerous for consumption.
PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION HAZARDS.
7.Many initiators in radiology suffered pain full and often fatal injuries from over-exposure to x-rays since the discovery of x-rays of last 19th century in 1895.In a short time they suffered from dermatitis,weakness,tiredness,nausea,vomiting anaemia,blood changes,cancer x ray ulcers and etc.The hazards to the radium dial painters arose due to the practice of pointing the brushes by licking which led to ingestion and retention of radium in the body and acting as a prolonged source of internal ionizing radiation.In 1921the British x-ray and radium committee was formed to the purpose of organizing protection against radiation.In 194,the development of 'chain reacting piles' the sudden development of atomic war-heads and nuclear weapons and their tests and their growth of atomic energy industries have increased widely the need for providing protection against radiation to persons who have to work in contact with radiation and populations exposed to environmental pollution.Radiation hazards associated with use of radio-isotopes in medical practice increased due to their increasing use in diagnosis and therapy.Radiation hazard inherent in nuclear war fare.the hazard of deposition of radio-activity materials in body through eating contaminated food,drinking water and contaminated air,exist due to nuclear blast tests.These dangers demand a good initial design of plants and isotope laboratories and efficient protective measures.
8.Protection against hazards from x rays and fluoroscopy..An increasing use of diagnostic x rays and flouroscopy has resulted in an increased radiation level to mankind causing concern and awareness of the possible risk to patients,medical and paramedical workers and to the population.Complete protection against x ray radiation can be ensured by its intelligent use.for example,examination should be restricted to those cases in which it is of established value and 100% essential and should be avoided if not clearly indicated,specially the repetition of identical tests,particularly of the female pelvis,hip joints and lumber spines and mostly the foetus lies in the direct beam of radiation.In the examination of hips,spines,pelvis or abdomen,the patient is protected by shielding of gonads and proper filtration,colonization of beam of x-rays by the use of proper cones,by utilization higher kilo voltages and observing other standard precautions in the practice of radiology which help to reduce exposure to unwanted radiation.Periodical examination of radiologists,radiographers,technicians and others workers is carried out when considered necessary.This must include a blood examination also. Self protection by the doctor and radiographer should be ensured by the use of appropriate shields and the screens,automatic protective devices,use of rubber aprons and clothing as recommended.Film badges and dosimeters should be used for monitoring;periodical examinations are useful.The use of intensifiers during flouroscopy can reduce the dose of over 10r. Radiological tests of infants and small children involve total body exposure,therefore,all parts out side the field of interest to be protected. Fluoroscopic out put must be kept at the lowest level with out interference with the brilliance of image.Unit with an out put in excess of 10 rem per minute should be modified to reduce
radiation.The radiologist should avoid placing his ungloved hand in the fluoroscopic field.All palpitation should be preferably done with the current off.
Safety measures in handling isotopes.
9.There can not be set any hard and fast and rigid rules applicable universally to all laboratories handling isotopes.They depend upon the demand type,chemical and physical behavior,the amount and the nature of radioactivity of isotopes handled in laboratory.Good house keeping,vigilance,alertness and good work habits are most important and the following measures/precautions minimize the danger of exposure isotopes.Selection of staff/workers those who are naturally neat,careful,healthy, mentally balanced and not accident prone for employment in isotope work.Education regarding the dangers
involved in work,training,in work methods,supervision to ensure their familiarity with rules,and initial and periodical medical check up.Obedience of safety rules and adherence of proper work methods and health'physics'practices. 10.prohibition of bringing unnecessary materials or doing any unnecessary work,eating,drinking or smoking.Proper storage of all radioactive materials to reduce the general background dose to minimum.Liquid radioactive waste like water used for cleaning can be disposed of through sewage system provided otherwise like solids it may require storage for decay before disposal.Solid wastes and contaminated substances,like bottles,blotting papers,dressings and etc,should be placed in a labelled waste cans and stacked away until radioactivity is reduced to a safe level and not discharged into a drain.After 2 or 3 months they are checked for radioactivity and if found safe should be disposed of like any other waste or otherwise retained for further decay before final disposal.Protective clothing,coats,gloves,goggles,masks,and shoe covers must always be used.They should not be taken out side the laboratory and worn in other rooms.When dusty radioactive material is handled,a dry box should be kept or if the operation is continued in a hood,the workers should wear a face mask.The international sign signifying the danger of ionizing radiation is to be displayed on all the doors and the windows and such other places where work on isotopes is conducted.A medical record of each individual should be maintained with care even though there may be no fear of overexposure.If a laboratory contamination is suspected,a survey should be made soon,followed by cleansing to reduce the radioactivity to an acceptable level.
11.For external radiation,monitoring is done by studying dosimeter or the film badge which are worn continuously on the front of the body,on the breast pocket,or attached to a finger ring,or wrist by each person exposed to radiation.Radiation incident is shown on film on its development.The developed film badge serves as a permanent record of the exposure of a person.If an internal hazard is suspected examination of urine,faeces,nasal discharges/smear or sputum may be helpful depending upon the metabolism of the special element involved.Measurements over the thyroid may be used to estimate the body burden of radio iodine where it is being used.A monthly thyroid count of workers would show whether the radioisotopes have been inhaled or ingested.Hands and shoes,floors,table tops,gloves and etc,are checked for contamination.For large radioisotope units have a 'count rate' meter which is necessary as per the nature of the radiation exposure.The total body burden can be estimated by assaying the amount of radioactivity excreted in the urine,faeces,or exhaled air and by a direct measurement of radiation from the 'critical organ'.Smoking,drinking or eating in areas where there is a chance of contamination and pi-petting of radioactive solutions by mouth is avoided.Rubber bulbs for aspiration are used for this purpose.Rubber or plastic gloves are worn for handling radioactive substances.When a risk of air borne contamination is present,suitable devices mechanically suck and carry the fumes,mists,dusts and vapours away from the worker and respirators or special hoods are used.Fixed radio active contamination is not a source of internal hazards as it can not be inhaled or ingested,but loose contamination leads to hazards.The cleanliness,protective clothing,washing of hands,and mouth,inhibition of eating,drinking smoking or application of cosmetics in work rooms may give considerable protection against internal radiation hazards.
12.For ensuring those precautions taken are complete,monitoring should be done from time to time the total dosages to which workers have been exposed in a given period.Prevention of exposure to radioactive material in industries such as radium dial painters where the substance comes in contact is affected by providing workers with glass screen booths and efficient exhaust mechanical ventilation and sufficient facilities for washing hands before meals should be provided.Rubber aprons,paper handkerchiefs,to be collected daily and destroyed.workers do not use their own handkerchiefs.Special separate rooms for eating and smoking.food,tobacco,drinks and cosmetics must not be introduced into the work room.Cleaning of floors must be by done by wet method.Special solvents to remove paints from hands should be provided.They should be rubbed into the hands and removed with soap and water.Employees should be medically examined with in 7 days of employment and there after monthly intervals,The first sign of finger a reddened glazed appearance of finger tips commencing with the erasure of the finger print,followed by cracking of the nail.At this stage complete stoppage of exposure the finger will revert to normal.A total WBC count below 4500 with reduction of poly morphs and relative lymphocytes show ingestion of larger doses.
13.A premedical check up is necessary to eliminate persons mentally and physically unsuitable to work with radiation The pre-employment medical standards are laid down in the ILO publication on protection of workers against radiation, Periodical medical tests of person who are exposed regularly exposed to ionizing radiation are necessary.A complete such medical record should me maintained and this should include information regarding pre-employment state of health,the radiation hazards exposed to,details of full clinical check ups and special investigations relating to special organs or tissues.Workers exposed to ionizing radiations and internal changes that should be watched for protective measures that should be taken.In fact that carelessness may lead to harm themselves and others.They must report soon to their doctor any abnormal signs detected on the skin or any other diseases.Dope paint workers should check their blood count regularly and they are entitled for extra milk during their work.Health education should be given to workers before commencing their works regarding ionizing radiation and its prevention and necessary measures to be taken by them.'health physic'is a composite discipline dealing with radiation safety.Persons exposed to accidental radiation and ingestion of radioactivity material and exposed to radioactivity dusts,vapours,etc,are soon sent to decontamination centers where they are given a shower bath after removal of their clothing.
14. After the bath the skin,hair,nails,urine,sputum,stool and exhaled breath are examined for radioactivity.If the internal body burden is high correct/appropriate medical care is instituted,If he has swallowed radioactivity material treatment for ingestion will be given.the use emetics/induce vomiting and stomach wash drugs given by doctors.and with this the radioactive/isotopes in the intestine will help in eliminating active materials.A contaminated skin should be washed for 2 minutes with soft soap warm water and giving special attention to nails and the inter digital areas.This may be repeated for 2 minutes if found necessary after monitoring,using a soft brush but taking care not to scratch or erode the skin.If the contamination still persists titanium dioxide paste should be applied and rubbed for 2 minutes.After rinsing off and brushing with soap and water the part is monitored.If necessary washing is repeated with 0.1% ammonium chloride.Floor and bench tops should be decontaminated with water and detergents.A solid wood surface may also be decontaminated by planning a thin layer of the surface.
15.Use of atomic energy as a weapon of war has brought to the forefront the need of providing special medical aid/care for the victims.The destructiveness of an atomic bomb is due to the most instant occurrence of a atomic mass into energy.The air burst over a city will cause maximum degree of destruction by blast,thermal radiation and secondary fires.and also immediate,delayed,and persistent radiation effects will be inflicted upon living beings and plant life.In case of bursts on the ground or near ground level,the overall blast damage and destruction by heat flash and secondary fires would be less than in the case of an air blast.The heaviest destruction and radiation will occur near the centre of explosion.The main difference between an atomic disaster and other heavy explosions are the suddenness and magnitude of the former event.At about 40000 to 50000 causalities may occur,excluding the dead as a result of one detonation. 10 to 30 percentage of the wounded in an atomic explosion would have received ionizing radiation as well.So medical aid for sudden occurrence of a large number of causalities,their evacuation to safe areas and further specialist treatment of medical.surgical and radio logical needs to be planned.planned. Immediately following the incident,medical persons and equipment enough to give minimum essential early treatment and preventive supervision would be required.As a practical consideration all causalities have to be regarded as radiation victims.unless proved otherwise.
16.Against explosive blasts,flashes and fire,depending on the distance from the point of explosion reinforced concrete buildings,deep shelters,tunnels,caves and trenches afford protection to some extent. Inflammable materials like wooden structures catch fire easily,concrete bricks and earth have greater protective value.The greater thickness of wall of the shelter the lesser are the chances of exposure to penetrating external radiation.To avoid internal radiation by inhalation of radioactive air and dust in the contaminated area or by ingestion of contaminated food or water no person should enter a contaminated area with out a respirator and should not touch food or water unless it has been declared safe by monitoring team.To summarize the protective measures are:-suitable underground shelters with thick nonflammable walls and roofs,monitoring of all suspected areas and materials,use of suitable clothing like respirators,over halls gloves gumboots,or strong leather boots,avoidance of entry into the contaminated area,prohibition of the consumption of suspected food,water,fruits,milk and vegetables,decontamination of persons and equipment at decontamination centers,and a periodical medical check up of rescue workers and cases likely to have been exposed to small doses of radiation.
pm kutty.
7.Many initiators in radiology suffered pain full and often fatal injuries from over-exposure to x-rays since the discovery of x-rays of last 19th century in 1895.In a short time they suffered from dermatitis,weakness,tiredness,nausea,vomiting anaemia,blood changes,cancer x ray ulcers and etc.The hazards to the radium dial painters arose due to the practice of pointing the brushes by licking which led to ingestion and retention of radium in the body and acting as a prolonged source of internal ionizing radiation.In 1921the British x-ray and radium committee was formed to the purpose of organizing protection against radiation.In 194,the development of 'chain reacting piles' the sudden development of atomic war-heads and nuclear weapons and their tests and their growth of atomic energy industries have increased widely the need for providing protection against radiation to persons who have to work in contact with radiation and populations exposed to environmental pollution.Radiation hazards associated with use of radio-isotopes in medical practice increased due to their increasing use in diagnosis and therapy.Radiation hazard inherent in nuclear war fare.the hazard of deposition of radio-activity materials in body through eating contaminated food,drinking water and contaminated air,exist due to nuclear blast tests.These dangers demand a good initial design of plants and isotope laboratories and efficient protective measures.
8.Protection against hazards from x rays and fluoroscopy..An increasing use of diagnostic x rays and flouroscopy has resulted in an increased radiation level to mankind causing concern and awareness of the possible risk to patients,medical and paramedical workers and to the population.Complete protection against x ray radiation can be ensured by its intelligent use.for example,examination should be restricted to those cases in which it is of established value and 100% essential and should be avoided if not clearly indicated,specially the repetition of identical tests,particularly of the female pelvis,hip joints and lumber spines and mostly the foetus lies in the direct beam of radiation.In the examination of hips,spines,pelvis or abdomen,the patient is protected by shielding of gonads and proper filtration,colonization of beam of x-rays by the use of proper cones,by utilization higher kilo voltages and observing other standard precautions in the practice of radiology which help to reduce exposure to unwanted radiation.Periodical examination of radiologists,radiographers,technicians and others workers is carried out when considered necessary.This must include a blood examination also. Self protection by the doctor and radiographer should be ensured by the use of appropriate shields and the screens,automatic protective devices,use of rubber aprons and clothing as recommended.Film badges and dosimeters should be used for monitoring;periodical examinations are useful.The use of intensifiers during flouroscopy can reduce the dose of over 10r. Radiological tests of infants and small children involve total body exposure,therefore,all parts out side the field of interest to be protected. Fluoroscopic out put must be kept at the lowest level with out interference with the brilliance of image.Unit with an out put in excess of 10 rem per minute should be modified to reduce
radiation.The radiologist should avoid placing his ungloved hand in the fluoroscopic field.All palpitation should be preferably done with the current off.
Safety measures in handling isotopes.
9.There can not be set any hard and fast and rigid rules applicable universally to all laboratories handling isotopes.They depend upon the demand type,chemical and physical behavior,the amount and the nature of radioactivity of isotopes handled in laboratory.Good house keeping,vigilance,alertness and good work habits are most important and the following measures/precautions minimize the danger of exposure isotopes.Selection of staff/workers those who are naturally neat,careful,healthy, mentally balanced and not accident prone for employment in isotope work.Education regarding the dangers
involved in work,training,in work methods,supervision to ensure their familiarity with rules,and initial and periodical medical check up.Obedience of safety rules and adherence of proper work methods and health'physics'practices. 10.prohibition of bringing unnecessary materials or doing any unnecessary work,eating,drinking or smoking.Proper storage of all radioactive materials to reduce the general background dose to minimum.Liquid radioactive waste like water used for cleaning can be disposed of through sewage system provided otherwise like solids it may require storage for decay before disposal.Solid wastes and contaminated substances,like bottles,blotting papers,dressings and etc,should be placed in a labelled waste cans and stacked away until radioactivity is reduced to a safe level and not discharged into a drain.After 2 or 3 months they are checked for radioactivity and if found safe should be disposed of like any other waste or otherwise retained for further decay before final disposal.Protective clothing,coats,gloves,goggles,masks,and shoe covers must always be used.They should not be taken out side the laboratory and worn in other rooms.When dusty radioactive material is handled,a dry box should be kept or if the operation is continued in a hood,the workers should wear a face mask.The international sign signifying the danger of ionizing radiation is to be displayed on all the doors and the windows and such other places where work on isotopes is conducted.A medical record of each individual should be maintained with care even though there may be no fear of overexposure.If a laboratory contamination is suspected,a survey should be made soon,followed by cleansing to reduce the radioactivity to an acceptable level.
11.For external radiation,monitoring is done by studying dosimeter or the film badge which are worn continuously on the front of the body,on the breast pocket,or attached to a finger ring,or wrist by each person exposed to radiation.Radiation incident is shown on film on its development.The developed film badge serves as a permanent record of the exposure of a person.If an internal hazard is suspected examination of urine,faeces,nasal discharges/smear or sputum may be helpful depending upon the metabolism of the special element involved.Measurements over the thyroid may be used to estimate the body burden of radio iodine where it is being used.A monthly thyroid count of workers would show whether the radioisotopes have been inhaled or ingested.Hands and shoes,floors,table tops,gloves and etc,are checked for contamination.For large radioisotope units have a 'count rate' meter which is necessary as per the nature of the radiation exposure.The total body burden can be estimated by assaying the amount of radioactivity excreted in the urine,faeces,or exhaled air and by a direct measurement of radiation from the 'critical organ'.Smoking,drinking or eating in areas where there is a chance of contamination and pi-petting of radioactive solutions by mouth is avoided.Rubber bulbs for aspiration are used for this purpose.Rubber or plastic gloves are worn for handling radioactive substances.When a risk of air borne contamination is present,suitable devices mechanically suck and carry the fumes,mists,dusts and vapours away from the worker and respirators or special hoods are used.Fixed radio active contamination is not a source of internal hazards as it can not be inhaled or ingested,but loose contamination leads to hazards.The cleanliness,protective clothing,washing of hands,and mouth,inhibition of eating,drinking smoking or application of cosmetics in work rooms may give considerable protection against internal radiation hazards.
12.For ensuring those precautions taken are complete,monitoring should be done from time to time the total dosages to which workers have been exposed in a given period.Prevention of exposure to radioactive material in industries such as radium dial painters where the substance comes in contact is affected by providing workers with glass screen booths and efficient exhaust mechanical ventilation and sufficient facilities for washing hands before meals should be provided.Rubber aprons,paper handkerchiefs,to be collected daily and destroyed.workers do not use their own handkerchiefs.Special separate rooms for eating and smoking.food,tobacco,drinks and cosmetics must not be introduced into the work room.Cleaning of floors must be by done by wet method.Special solvents to remove paints from hands should be provided.They should be rubbed into the hands and removed with soap and water.Employees should be medically examined with in 7 days of employment and there after monthly intervals,The first sign of finger a reddened glazed appearance of finger tips commencing with the erasure of the finger print,followed by cracking of the nail.At this stage complete stoppage of exposure the finger will revert to normal.A total WBC count below 4500 with reduction of poly morphs and relative lymphocytes show ingestion of larger doses.
13.A premedical check up is necessary to eliminate persons mentally and physically unsuitable to work with radiation The pre-employment medical standards are laid down in the ILO publication on protection of workers against radiation, Periodical medical tests of person who are exposed regularly exposed to ionizing radiation are necessary.A complete such medical record should me maintained and this should include information regarding pre-employment state of health,the radiation hazards exposed to,details of full clinical check ups and special investigations relating to special organs or tissues.Workers exposed to ionizing radiations and internal changes that should be watched for protective measures that should be taken.In fact that carelessness may lead to harm themselves and others.They must report soon to their doctor any abnormal signs detected on the skin or any other diseases.Dope paint workers should check their blood count regularly and they are entitled for extra milk during their work.Health education should be given to workers before commencing their works regarding ionizing radiation and its prevention and necessary measures to be taken by them.'health physic'is a composite discipline dealing with radiation safety.Persons exposed to accidental radiation and ingestion of radioactivity material and exposed to radioactivity dusts,vapours,etc,are soon sent to decontamination centers where they are given a shower bath after removal of their clothing.
14. After the bath the skin,hair,nails,urine,sputum,stool and exhaled breath are examined for radioactivity.If the internal body burden is high correct/appropriate medical care is instituted,If he has swallowed radioactivity material treatment for ingestion will be given.the use emetics/induce vomiting and stomach wash drugs given by doctors.and with this the radioactive/isotopes in the intestine will help in eliminating active materials.A contaminated skin should be washed for 2 minutes with soft soap warm water and giving special attention to nails and the inter digital areas.This may be repeated for 2 minutes if found necessary after monitoring,using a soft brush but taking care not to scratch or erode the skin.If the contamination still persists titanium dioxide paste should be applied and rubbed for 2 minutes.After rinsing off and brushing with soap and water the part is monitored.If necessary washing is repeated with 0.1% ammonium chloride.Floor and bench tops should be decontaminated with water and detergents.A solid wood surface may also be decontaminated by planning a thin layer of the surface.
15.Use of atomic energy as a weapon of war has brought to the forefront the need of providing special medical aid/care for the victims.The destructiveness of an atomic bomb is due to the most instant occurrence of a atomic mass into energy.The air burst over a city will cause maximum degree of destruction by blast,thermal radiation and secondary fires.and also immediate,delayed,and persistent radiation effects will be inflicted upon living beings and plant life.In case of bursts on the ground or near ground level,the overall blast damage and destruction by heat flash and secondary fires would be less than in the case of an air blast.The heaviest destruction and radiation will occur near the centre of explosion.The main difference between an atomic disaster and other heavy explosions are the suddenness and magnitude of the former event.At about 40000 to 50000 causalities may occur,excluding the dead as a result of one detonation. 10 to 30 percentage of the wounded in an atomic explosion would have received ionizing radiation as well.So medical aid for sudden occurrence of a large number of causalities,their evacuation to safe areas and further specialist treatment of medical.surgical and radio logical needs to be planned.planned. Immediately following the incident,medical persons and equipment enough to give minimum essential early treatment and preventive supervision would be required.As a practical consideration all causalities have to be regarded as radiation victims.unless proved otherwise.
16.Against explosive blasts,flashes and fire,depending on the distance from the point of explosion reinforced concrete buildings,deep shelters,tunnels,caves and trenches afford protection to some extent. Inflammable materials like wooden structures catch fire easily,concrete bricks and earth have greater protective value.The greater thickness of wall of the shelter the lesser are the chances of exposure to penetrating external radiation.To avoid internal radiation by inhalation of radioactive air and dust in the contaminated area or by ingestion of contaminated food or water no person should enter a contaminated area with out a respirator and should not touch food or water unless it has been declared safe by monitoring team.To summarize the protective measures are:-suitable underground shelters with thick nonflammable walls and roofs,monitoring of all suspected areas and materials,use of suitable clothing like respirators,over halls gloves gumboots,or strong leather boots,avoidance of entry into the contaminated area,prohibition of the consumption of suspected food,water,fruits,milk and vegetables,decontamination of persons and equipment at decontamination centers,and a periodical medical check up of rescue workers and cases likely to have been exposed to small doses of radiation.
pm kutty.
