FOOD POISONING AND ITS PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Consumption of unwholesome food or drinks leads to food poisoning.In its broad sense includes the ill effects produced by the ingestion of food contaminated by bacteria or in many other ways such as addition by a criminal intent or accidentally of poisons like lead,arsenic or by through eating mistakenly of poisonous items such as certain mushrooms or fishes or by adulteration of food with poisonous articles like Argemone mexicana in mustard or gingelly oil producing epidemic dropsy in man and also some virulent seeds mixed with food item seeds and adulterated for profit and regular

ingestion of such foods may cause diseases like Parkinson and crippling paralysis etc. Gastro-enteritis

caused by bacterial pollution of food or drinks also normally known as food poisoning.There are three types,namely,infection type,toxin type and botulism type due to toxin produced by bacterial contamination in food and it is deferential from other types.The prominent symptom of botulism type poison affects on the nervous system.The early symptom is loss of visual accommodation and gradually muscles of the body gets weaker.In infection type,due to living bacteria present in food, man gets fever,vomiting and diarrhea and watery motions.Dehydration is more in these cases. .Incubation period is with in hours to one day and decease is about 5 days.In the Toxin type is due to multiplication of bacteria in food,severe loose motions and vomiting with dehydration occurs.incubation period is 4 hours to 24 hours.
Causative organisms  for bacterial food poisoning by salmonella organisms which is commonly in ice creams and suffer diarrhea,dysentery,etc.Reservoir of infection is salmonella organisms, are natural commensals of rodents,pigs.poultry,cattle,ducks eggs and also some healthy human carriers.The source of infection commonly comes to a healthy person by man handling the food from its production to consumer.Rat droppings and fowl faeces may also come as source of infection.A Cow or sheep with mastitis may act as source of infection of milk. Auto-infection of meat during slaughtering and processing may occur.
Route of infection normally is the tinned and preserved food stuffs,generally of animal origin or milk or fruits. Infective bacteria/virus/fungi are derived from animals slaughtered or are transferred from the handler of milk,meat,or fruits from its source,through processing to the consumer.A milk man may infect milk from his infected finger or ear or nose or skin boils or contaminated hands.Pollution may occur while processing,and flies may also transfer infection.
All those who have been infected do not suffer from the syndrome,excretion of bacteria of salmonella type is common among chronic cases of loose motions{diarrhea}.Carrier ship may exist.Any person carrying salmonella and staphylococci may possess an indefinite period of infectivity. Man possess
no natural immunity against salmonellosis and toxins of other organisms.An infection does not confer long standing immunity.Children suffer more from complaints and cases of fatality is also more among children than adults.
Out breaks of food poisoning is mostly in close community catering organisations like students hostels,old peoples homes and messes,but some times in hotels and marriage auditoriums,rarely such out breaks occur in house old cooking,and mostly on festive occasions when large gatherings of the meal,and also out breaks are common when the temperature is high.
Prevention of out breaks and their control:Meat and meat products coming from slaughter houses should not contaminate by any type of pollution by organisms and a care full control from the slaughter of the animal to the final preparation for consumption is necessary and should include a thorough system of meat inspection.Animals also are to be inspected before slaughtering.Strict supervision of of made-up food and milk should be boiled and all care must be taken against further contamination.
Individuals suffering from septic fingers,throat,eye lids or skin lesions should not be employed as cooks or food handlers.Persons having history of  suffering from enteric fever or food poisoning also should not be employed as food handlers as they may be the carriers of typhoid,paratyphoid etc.Everything is to be done to prevent access of rats,mice or other animals to food stored for human consumption.For maintenance of high standard of sanitation and freedom from fly nuisance strict supervision is necessary,and personal hygiene and inspection for the presence of any intestinal,skin or nasal infection among food handlers are important. A large number of organisms are required to produce clinical symptoms of food poisoning.These can be only ha-pend when their multiplication occurs in the prepared dish stored for some time at normal temperature.It is,therefore,necessary that made up food in which raw eggs have been used must be kept in a proper
ice box or refrigerator.
For controlling of an out break of food poisoning the only and most important precaution is to prohibit consumption of any articles of food which are suspected of forming a part of the suspected food articles.Subsequently specific precautions are to be taken to ensure recurrence are made after exact circumstance is known on investigation and also improving hygiene and sanitation to a good standard.
 pm kutty

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF MALARIA

It is an insect borne communicable disease,caused by Sporozo parasites belonged to genus plasmodium,characterized by intermittent fever.chills.cold,shivering,enlargement of spleen and a tendency to relapse.Temperature may shoot up to 39-40 centigrade,make patient shivering and finally wet stage with sweating brings down temperature.It may occur daily,alternative days or 36-48 hours.Each lasts 10-15 hours and rarely up to 24 hours or longer. Diagnosis is confirmed by microscopic examination of blood smear,There are 2 types of malaria commonly depend upon severity of paroxysms of the species of plasmodium i.e. benign Tirtian fever and malignant Tirtian fever.Relapses are more common in benign malaria and is not common in malignant tertian..The parasite has to under go 2 cycles that is,namely sexual cycle in mosquito and asexual cycle in man by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
2.Incubation period is period in human being is 14 days and in mosquito is 10-14 days.Man has no immunity against malaria.There are 3 recognized malaria zones,those are the tropical zone between
the cancer and Capricorn,has almost universal endemic malarial area.The malaria season is long in areas near equator it may last throughout the year.In India malaria transmission season is from July to November with its peak in September.A secondary infection occurs in April-May relapsed and delayed primary attacks by malaria.In southern India the season varies according rainy season.In hill areas the disease occurs from February to June,meanwhile in plain areas malaria occurs in autumn or in early of spring corresponding the starting of monsoon.In Assam malaria
 is high just arrival of monsoon from March to June with a peak in May and June.
3.Anti malaria measures;There are three broad Groups of antimalarial measures aimed at breaking the "man-mosquito-man" cycle of transmission.namely,personal protection against mosquito bite,chemo prophylaxis and chemotherapy.
Individual protection against mosquito bite obtained by the use of net,application of repellents to exposed skin parts when not under net,and protection by proper use of clothing from dusk to dawn.Of all these measures,the use of mosquito net is the most useful single measure.Screening of homes and public buildings had been tried in so many places in south east Asia,but it is not practicable or economical.
Chemo prophylaxis is a supplementary measure under high risk situations,but it is not a substitute for other control measures.It reduces clinical attacks by suppressing the malarial parasite,sporozites induced per infected mosquito bite.Theoretically it is possible to control malaria in a country by giving radical treatment with ideal and specific drugs,but this can be achieved rarely in practice. Chemotherapy reduces the parasite count in community and it is an ideal and valuable aid in control programmes.
Health education among public regarding transmission of disease from mosquito to man and important of personal protective measures.to prevent mosquito breeding,residual insecticide spray and etc.
Space spray is carried out once in week in a highly malarious area to be occupied for purposes of industrial .defense and engineering projects at short notice.to control quickly an epidemic or as a remedial measure in the locality where local transmission is detected.
Malaria control in India in its first phase till 1934 larval control was the main method used.Few achievements were gained due engineering methods and larvicidal oils were used.They were slow,expensive and laborious.
An ideal anti-malaria drug for use in mass control program-me should be a prophylactic drug against all species of sporozites of malaria i.e.it should not allow to develop further,it should be a radical curative i.e it should destroy all types malaria parasite and should possess very low toxicity and should be available readily at a low cost.The drugs at present available have various limitations.
Mass chemotherapy may also be used after withdrawal from or passing through a hyper endemic. area.
pm kutty

PREVENTION OF CORONARY HEART DISEASES

 Coronary heat diseases

Coronary  heart diseases occur due to lack of blood supply to heart muscles by an increased cardiac demand or decreased coronary supply to heart muscles.Both these elements are the causes for heart attack.Complete blockage of coronary artery is causing in myocardial infarction.Sometimes it happens due to syphilitic aortitis resulting in sealing the mouth of coronary artery and the process may affect the arteries themselves.Death may occur any time before the complete recovery of diseased cardiac muscles  with in 6-8 weeks or more.It may again occur due to myocardial infarct increase for a second attack due to blockage or an extension of first one,or due to myocardial failure,congestive heart failure,or blockage or rupture of the necrosed heart muscle.Due to pericarditis and endocarditis over the patches of infarction may occur and may cause pulmonary or coronary failure and cause death.

Coronary thrombosis,Myocardial infarction,Angina pectoris and,myocardial insufficiency are under the groups of ischemic or coronary heart diseases.Death rates over the last 60 to 80 years ,increased all over the world almost every where especially highly modernized and industrially and commercially developed countries.The incidence is related with national income and industrial production and activity,international commercial transactions and tempo of life.The increased incidence noticed by the mortality numbers confirmed by autopsy studies,medical practitioners"and hospital statistics and social security organisations.statistics of national insurance and commercial insurance organisations and by surveys in general population.

Diet.It is commonly associated with dietary habits in that the individuals with high fat,sugar contents in their foods are liable to suffer more.The incidence is more in countries with large consumption of fat especially the animal fats or fats containing a high proportion of saturated fatty acids and low contents of unsaturated fats in their diets.

Heredity.The incidence is more among siblings of those who have attacks.

Association with other diseases like hypertension,diabetes .etc.

Age.The disease is most common in people of 40-60 years of age,although more and more younger people are being affected these days.

The incidence is more in men than in women under 50 years of age which shows that the sex hormone may have to play some part in its genesis.

Profession.It is more common amongst highly efficient conscientious professional men in medical,legal,senior
executives of large corporate industrial and business establishments.In western countries out of 1000 men doctors below 41 years of age 200 develop ischaemic heart syndrome or disease before they are 65.It occurs less in farmers,miners and unskilled manual workers etc.More people getting attacks on
the top of their social or professional carriers and status and expectation of surprising achievements
 in life.

Obesity.It is about 3 times more among those who have 20% or more weight gain over their weight at
adult age.Although the thin one is not having immune to an attack.
Mode of life.It is more in people in sedentary works/professions and habits.More cases occurs in
urban than rural population.Smokers suffer more than nonsmokers.Sudden severe emotional strain/stress precedes and precipitates more attacks among such people.


Preventive measures.Prevention of death,disability,diseases and other factors are wider concept  of prevention.16 to 30 % of first attacks end in sudden deaths with in 60 minutes of onset.Briefly the main risk factors are hypertension,diabetes mellitus,over weight,cigarette smoking,'physical inactivity
and stress and strain 'producing mental activity,a 'positive family history of  vascular disease,onset before age forty and abnormal electrocardiogram.The other abnormalities are thyroid dysfunction,
renal disease and sedentary living habits. Obesity and over weight are taken to be a high coronary risk factor.

About 30-40% of the first myocardial infractions terminate fatally during the first 6 weeks of sickness.Survivors have life expectancy under the best of circumstances.The persons with previous
history of coronary heart disease have 5 times more chance to increase to mortality rate than those originally free from disease.It is, therefore,efforts must be taken to prevent the first attack in achieving primary prevention.It is now easy to prevent first attack by applying the recent knowledge of risk factors for the disease and to remedy

Early detection of susceptible cases and treatment of risk factors is very important to achieve primary
prevention of heart disease.The nutritional,hygienic,dietery and pharmacological means are available
to correct and control hypertension,over weight,cigarette smoking,diabetes and physical activity.This is to correct abnormalities and keep them for long time to establish new habits.As they are not known
the causing factors like diet,over weight avoidance,control of smoking and drinking restriction,increasing of exercise,relaxation from constant strain producing occupations and situations
and control of conditions known about heart diseases such as diabetes mellitus,hypertension,gall bladder and kidney diseases.Early detection and proper and prompt treatment to diverse causes of
these risk factors. Watching  natural events in heart diseases in the community and for prevention in an individual. Collection of data of causing diseases and research on the cases should be enhanced.

Serum cholesterol and triglyceride are controlled with in normal limits by diets.Diet control is necessary to 'prevent obesity and to balance anabolism and katabolism.Caloric requirement is to
be reduced/lowered as the age advances after 40 years.Hence animal fat consumption should be reduced mainly in diet.All vegetable oils have a high concentration of unsaturated essential fatty acids,except coconut oil. Regular exercise against obesity is an advantage like insurance.It keeps your
heart muscles in training to meet the additional demands in times of stress and also,men with sedentary works should adopt habits of regular exercise.

Weight regulation through avoiding obesity by diet regulation and exercise must be 'practiced.The person may inherit tendencies for obesity together with high cholesterol and such 'person has to be
more vigilant and careful.Although drinking and smoking is not essential for a healthy life,those should be avoided,if not,,moderation in drinking and smoking must be exercised.Drugs are available to quit smoking.Smoking affects the arterial system specially coronary system and stimulate
vasospasm rapidly and contracting blood vessels in cold injuries like frost bite,similarly the risk of cardiac coronary bloackage and infarct in myocardium is increased by heavy smoking,so that it must be 'prohibited among 'persons with risk factors of coronary heart diseases.Regular cardiovascular and urinary systems examinations are to be done to find out for normal functions of systems.Habitual dietery controls may reduce the 'progression of the conditions by keeping serum cholesterol at low level.Among socioeconomically well off communities,the doctors,lawyers, judges,bank officials executives and administers show a high tendency to get the disease more common than other individuals.The preventive measures,there fore,should be taken to detect the vulnerable groups and
individuals with in those groups and then control the contributory factors relevant to them.Early diagnosis and treatment of all the antecedent conditions are entirely necessary to enhance our knowledge for further studies and findings.

pm kutty

DRINKING AND SMOKING

Value of alcohol from the physiological and psychological point of view is not subject to a different opinion.It has some food value in the sense that it makes some calories and hence spares or supplements carbohydrates.In any form it is not at all essential for nutrition.It has a calorific  value of 6 to 7 colories per ml The psychological "stimulant" effect of the alcohol in moderate doses are used in high altitude during cold and inclement weather as a psychological booster than any other reason.On the other hand if consumed in excess it may produce very bad effects on the tissues mainly liver,heart and central nervous system.These effects are mainly in alcoholics lack of food and or improper absorption in "chronic hard boiled alcoholics"  as a result of chronic alcoholic gastritis.
Small amount of alcohol taken occasionally may not be harmful physiologically or physically,but higher regular consumption may lead to diseases of liver,stomach,kidneys,cardiovascular system and nervous system causing alcoholic cirrhosis,nephritic conditions,stomach ulcers, various nervous and psychic ailments,
cancer in mouth,throat,food pipe and stomach.Regular consumption of large quantities sooner or later leads
compulsive drinking and further on to addiction and finally confirmed as "alcoholism" in its classical stage
which is harmful to the body and mind.In fact alcoholism itself takes the form of a disease needing treatment
psychologically.It may in its extreme forms cause sudden or chronic alcoholism dipsomania,delirium tremors
and various types of psychosis such as Korsakoff s syndrome,crippling paralysis, etc.The effects of alcoholism on the central nervous system are 3 causes;it leads to myeline degeneration progressing to
Wallerian degeneration of the nerve tissue;it causes deficiency of nutriments specially the vitamin b group
due to malabsorption,gastric irritation and liver damage;it causes psychological aberration by regular use.
The effect of mental functions are lowering of  rational thinking,increased latent period,reaction time and
decreased cerebration,disturbance of the power of correct judgment,increased mental irritability and lethargy after drinking bouts,decreased power of concentration,decreased balancing power and decreased
capacity for prolonged and sustained intellectual work.Chronic alcoholism may lead to obesity and its effects.
A concentration of as low as 0.4 mg per cc blood will cause disturbance of judgement for quick action as
required while driving a vehicle or for semiliar duties,etc.
Heavy smoking is another harmful habit.Tobacco is not essential for a healthy or happy life.Like drinking this habit also often begins as a social accompaniment for relaxation under tense conditions,as an escape from relatives of life stress or from the false beliefs in their beneficial values.The temporary relief is followed by irritation or lack of concentration and craving for further smoking.Like tobacco chewing or alcohol drinking this lead to compulsive smoking and then to addiction.Excessive smoking, if started in early life,causes increased incidence of lung cancer.It increases to a high incidence of ischaemic heart disease,peptic ulceration,gastric cancer and tremors.Nicotine causes powerful vasospasm,chronic bronchitis and pharyngitis
and dental staining always seen in heavy smokers.Smoking increases chance for frost bite,due to vasospasm
induced by it.Withdrawal symptoms are lack of concentration,restlessness,irritability,etc.smoking is not having any nutritional or health promoting values and heavy smoking has definite unhealthy effects.

pmkutty









  

SNAKE BITE

HABITS OF SNAKES

The snake is a limbless creature with a scaly elongated body, colours and patterns on the body blend with surroundings.the progression of the snake is by gliding,moving faster on rough surface than on smooth surfaces.Head having a pair of eyes and a pair of nostrils but no external ears.The important anatomical parts of the snake is,as far as the human health hazard is concerned,are teeth and venom glands of poisonous snakes."envenomation"is the term called for the snake bite poisoning.Snakes eat insects,frogs,rats and mice.The king cobra type of some lives on small snakes and also its own kind.The Mongoose.dogs,cats, eagle and peacock are its natural enemies.Dogs and cats are alerted by its presence and they catch it.

Most snakes are are usually nervous and shy;therefore,they try to escape and hide if disturbed,and attack only if escape is not possible.Some are,however,vicious and attack unprovoked.They are not disturbed in fields and forests and getting of plenty of prey,are more infested than inhabited areas.But rodents may attract them into build up areas.Jung heaps, garbage.and rubbish collections,close to human habitation,offer them

undisturbed shelter and offer them lot of prey.They also live hollow of trees and abandoned and fallen masonry.

Snakes survive starvation for long time and hibernate during severe winters.In tropics they are seen in the open all year round.In subtropics they come out in  summer and more open during rains in search of dry places.most land snake can climb in the tree and swim.Fresh water snakes are nonpoisonous.A medical person should be able to distinguish the poisonous from non-poisonous snakes and a bite from it is required anti venom treatment or not,because,although the anti venom treatment is life saving,it carries a certain amount of risks.If the bite is certainly that from a non poisonous snake the specific treatment can be withheld.The distribution,local names and important distinguishing features of Indian poisonous snakes should be learned by a first aider and he must know the first aid treatment to give to a snake bite case before the arrival of a doctor or the case is being transported to a hospital.
There are about 1000 species of snakes in the world out of which 300 are Poisonous.Out of 400 species of
Indian land snakes 40 species are poisonous,and out of those only 4 per cent only constitute the total population of snakes.Out of 30 sea snakes species in India one species only poisonous.But due to their narrow gape they can rarely bite effectively.The main poisonous land snakes in India are the cobra,King cobra,vipers and the Krait which is most poisonous of all the snakes but least commonly bites a man.The first 3 species cause most of the deaths.But pit vipers in India do not cause many deaths.There are three main types of viper in India namely, Russell s viper,green pit viper and so scaled viper which all can be distinguished by seeing the marks,scales and a pit on the head of green pit viper.Cobras include the common India cobra and king cobra which is forest dweller.The common Indian cobras are found in thick jungles or in open country with or with out vegetation and in gardens or in cultivated lands under rubbish or in old temples and mosques.It is also found in dark rooms of bungalows, homes,when disturbed it tries to escape.A young cobra is much more alert and irritable and strikes and bites and more dangerous than a full grown cobra.Venom of cobra affects nervous system,depresses brain and makes respiratory failure.
Vipers with pits on heads between nose and eyes called "pit vipers" and not having such  pits are
"pit less vipers".Both types are found all over India.There are about 110 kinds of these viper snakes and all are poisonous.but the venom of some of them is not lethal to man.Their poison fangs are well grown and effective for a bite.A viper has a flat,broad and some what triangular head with angles,normally covered with small scales.and eyes vertically.11 kinds of pit vipers are found in Indian sub continent,and 22 kinds are found in Asia out of 65 kinds pit vipers in the world.Indian pit vipers are mostly found in hilly areas and deaths from their bites are rare.The deaths by bites of pit-less vipers are more in India are the Russell's and the Echis vipers.They are easily distinguished by the broad plates extending right across the belly and the small scales on the head like to those on the body.their back marked with black blotches of inverted V shaped markings.No other land  snake possesses all these features combined.Venom of vipers affect on blood and circulatory system and makes hemorrhage/bleeding internally and externally.
Kraits are found more in eastern India than other parts of country,but are found in patches of all over the country.There are two main varieties, the banded and non branded.Kraits has the most potent venom of all
the land snakes,which affects the central nervous system and paralyses of the brain and collapses of lungs and suffer from respiratory failure.But these snakes are inoffensive and shy which bites human beings very rare.It abounds in cultivated fields and human habitations.They have a small mouth and very fine fangs.
Snake venom is a clear, oduorless and fastless liquid.After drying it and adding water to it,it will again become a powerful poison.It acts only through broken surface of skin,mouth,or mucous remembrances.It is like a digestive juice and digests everything except hair,nails and etc.Venom contains four important enzymes.The systemic effects produced by each type of venom is determined by the presence of particular enzymes.A snake can bite number of times successfully and continue to secrete venom,and the amount of poison discharged one time by each bite from a poisonous snake varies from 2-3 drops as in the case of sea snake,and 30 drops as in the case of king cobra.
 The diagnosis of envenomation and its type is made by the time interval between the bite and starting of symptoms,and progression,type of syndrome and local examination of snake.Snake venom is highly potent poison and absorbed into the body rapidly.As all snakes are not poisonous and all bites are not fatal,all snake bitten persons suffer from psychological shock and few deaths may occur due to it.So all bites are considered as poisonous and requiring proper attention.The victim should not exert and should keep calm and reassure the victim.Absolute rest and warmth should be given,and hot tea or coffee may be given.Alcohol and strychnine are prohibited and morphia is contraindicated.It is better to give first on the spot.The victim may call for help or proceed slowly to the place where assistance can be had.A quick inspection and general examination of bitten part may give indication whether poison has been injected.
Treatment depend on correct diagnosis of envenomation and its type.The venom acts very soon if a large
amount is absorbed into the circulation,and anti snake venom serum,which is the only specific remedy,does not get a fair chance and time to neutralize the venom if its administration is delayed ,First aid,therefore, aimed at preventing and delaying absorption of the poison pending administration of the anti snake venom.
The first aid treatment for snake bite is as follows:Remember RRP(REST,REASSURANCE,POSITION)  
If you see a snake bite case locally,give him complete rest,reassure the victim and keep the bitten part lowered if the bite is one of the extremities.Any action walking,running.etc will increase circulation and poison may absorb rapidly in the whole body.Aim of the first aid is, not to enter snake venom into circulation. Wash the part thoroughly by soap and water or with plain water if soap is not available on the spot,This will remove the poison from the site of bite from further absorption to blood.Suck the bitten part by your mouth if mucous membrane in mouth is intact.Then apply a piece thick string of cloth round the limb,on the single bone,above the site
of bite.Tighten it with a stick just enough to stop venous circulation not for arterial flow.This more beneficial
in case of cobra bite than viper bite.suction may be done by breast pump or cupping glass etc,if incisions are made on the part of bite,There is also a controversy that if incision are made in the bitten part, more poison may absorb in circulation.Any way valuable time may not be wasted over these procedures.
The limb should be immobilized with a splint,broad strips of wood or in sand bags or plaster splints.
Thomas splint should be used when patient has to be moved over a long distance for specific treatment.The
envenomation having been diagnosed,the anti snake venom serum should be given with out delay on arrival
to hospitals.
pmkutty

POPULATION CONTROL

The population growth

The most pressing social problem undermining the social security and development in the world today,mainly in developing countries of Asia,South America and Africa,but specially in our country,is that of growing population.The population has been growing since the birth of civilisation about 6000 years ago,but the rate of growth now is more than ever before.Before the beginning of christian Era,the world population has been
estimated at less than 125 million and the population in India less than 7 million.The natural forces balanced the births by deaths and kept the population growth low.The populations have been growing in the world every  where but has been growing faster in the eastern countries,especially so in the developing countries like India.Our average rate of increase in population is over 2.5 per cent per year which is more than that of any developing country.It took several thousand years,say 5000 years or more,for our population to reach
its present level of more than 500 million.But the present rate of growth it will take only 27 years to reach 1000 million.This is the population explosion.

Causes of population growth: The rapid increase in population in India is due to the decreased death rates from over 50 per cent of the population at the starting of this century to about 15 per 1000,while the birth rate has remained almost at about 40.This leaves a surplus of 25 persons per 1000 of population per year.
The decreased mortality due to the control of major endemic diseases and epidemics,better health care of the communities and improved living environments,premature births,still births and infant mortality,all depend upon the care of the pregnant mother,have halved during the last 30 to 40 years.population grows in three stages.The first of this stage is slow population growth.During this stage the high birth rate is accompanied with equally high death rate.This stage is found in the underdeveloped communities with low living standards.
The next stage is that of rapid population growth,this occurs in the communities.which are rapidly developing their living standards.we are at present in this stage.The third stage is that of steady population.This obtained by reducing the birth rate faster than the falling death rate;both balancing each other.This is the ideal stage to be achieved by us.
The growth of human population occurs in progress while the food grows,more over the land on the surface of the earth for growing food,building houses,raising industries,and that required for supporting civilized human existence is limited,while population can grow and has grown unlimitedly. A widening gap is so created mainly affecting the earlier years of life,increases the proportion of the younger generation.It accompanied by a falling birth rate,and the adult proportion of population increase.In developed western countries like U.K these proportions are 70 per cent productive and 30 per cent non-productive,half which are young persons and half old.In India the younger age group is about 49 per cent of the whole population while in the developed countries it is 15 to 20 per cent.

The practicable remedial measures; The population control measures include firstly the migration.Large scale of migrations which occurred in the in ancient and historic periods are no more possible now to any out side countries.Inter-state migrations are possible in India,provided enough industrial enterprises are undertaken in otherwise barren lands to attract and occupy surplus people to other over populated areas.The next measure is to increase the food and commodity production to support the growing population,which is being pursued in our country

National considerations:
The limited available land and arithmetical progression of food grain production can not maintain a population growing in geometrical progression.In spite of about 75 per cent increase in food grain production since 1950,the per capita allowance has not increased of  pre-existing allowance of 12 to 14 ozs. The present yield per acre will not materially increase unless a radical change in agricultural methods on a vast scale is brought about.
Mechanisation of farming is  essential for increased food production,will entail the rapid release of vast labour force from agricultural employment and will have to be absorbed in industry which is not possible with out a planned successful economy.
Initially the community and industrial development plans are based on a certain estimate of population..Full employment,community and administrative services commercial and commodity production will fall short of requirements.
provision of a adequate social services,living and working accommodations,employment have all to be planned according to the size and type of population.Increase in population upsets the plans.
The expectation and experience of a better livings has increased demands of people on food,consumer goods,housing,community services,administrative services,social security and welfare services.
So the improvements in general living standards far achieved is being under minded and general fall will not be at a distance.We have to remain  depend on other countries for all our requirements.The close  relationship of housing,nutrition,social security,with mental health,necessitates a limitation of the family.

Family consideration: Large families are desirable for agrarian civilizations of feudalistic pattern.Industrial
civilization has resulted in disintegration of joint families due to shifting from rural to urban environments.
Economic bonds between "nuclear"families have loosened and between their collective reliance on the parent joint family for social and economic security,which was the most important single asset of the joint family system,has been severed.The income of the nuclear families drifting to urban areas is not always sufficient
and can not be supplemented from the limited joint rural land resources.so family size limitation has become
necessary.A small family is convenient for housing,feeding.clothing,planning education,training and employment.
Individual considerations: This concerns the health of the mother and efficiency and growth of the child.many pregnancies and confinements damage the health of mother and does not permit her to look after the child properly or help his normality of  growth.India has adopted a family welfare programme officially.Prolonging the marriageable ages of young women by affording the facilities for education up to a later age and there fore employment in gainful professions is one of the methods of decreasing the birth rate. Avoidance of polygamy can also help birth control to certain extent and control the growth of population.

pmkutty 

CLIMATE AND HEALTH

Life on earth exists within an envelop of atmosphere which surrounds the earth for about 100 km above it.This atmospheric envelop has 3 zones;the inner most extending up to 11 km is called "troposphere",the middle zone up to 20 km is the stratosphere and the outer most is ionosphere.The narrow belt between first and third zone is called troposphere
 which almost completely separates these two zones having contrasting characteristics as explained below.

The temperature in the troposphere decreases as the height increases,at the rough rate of 0.65 per 100 meters until it goes down to about 55 c beyond the troposphere up to 32 km it is almost constant;there after goes on increasing so that between 50 to 60 km it is more than that at the sea level.The troposphere contains 80% of total bulk of the air and almost all moisture and terrestrial dust of the atmosphere.The troposphere does not permit dispersion of the mass of air from the troposphere into the stratosphere.In the troposphere there are eddies and turbulence which produce vertical air currents causing cloud formations and rain fall.
The stratosphere is very calm,and clouds do not rise above troposphere. .All ultra violet below 0.29u (2900A)
absorbed ozone above the troposphere which also stops the electrical storms which are common in the  stratosphere.The troposphere so acts as an insulating blanket and barrier which keeps the envelope of gaseous, troposphere moving within its bounds with out being disturbed by cosmic events,harmful radiation
and electric storms of outer space,or getting lost in the void of outer space.Life ceases instantaneously above 10000 meres.Atmosphere contains air,water vapor Radiation and dust.

The air in its dry state has 78 percent nitrogen,21 percent oxygen and the remaining 1 percent is hydrogen,
carbon dioxide,ozone,and a mixture of other gases,such as org on,neon,radon,etc.Oxygen is the vital constituent of atmosphere as with out it no life could exist on earth,but pure oxygen would oxidase and eradicate all living matter and nitrogen dilutes it correctly.

WEATHER,CLIMATE AND SEASONS:The result of the dynamic meteorological events like high or low barometric pressure waves,gales,storms,rain falls,clouds,hail stones ,snow falls typify the weather of a place.The fundamentals which determine these events at a place are due to the meteorological factors are due to the duration of solar radiation,temperature,the air movement,and the humidity of the atmosphere,altitude and latitude,and also the difference from oceans and presence and direction of ocean currents.Each of the factors modifies others and all influenced by the topographical factors/features.The combination of all of these factors over a definite period is called weather.Its effect on human beings,not upon each individual factor but upon the resultant combination of all of them and the final effect on the human sensation is produced by the most dominant of the meteorological factors,so,weather is proscribed as warm,cold,chilly,rainy,or just fine,lousy or miserable.These adjectives describe the human sensation create by  the particular weather conditions rather than the weathers themselves or  the meteorological events.  
RAIN,HAIL STONES,FOG AND MIST AND SNOW FORMATIONS.
Water has a higher specific heat than the earths crust.It is ,therefore,oceans absorb more  from solar radiation,retain it for longer period and give it out more slowly than the earth.There fore,the
temperature during the day is always higher on land  than on the oceans.This keeps a difference in  temperature on land and sea and produces air movements from the see towards the earth and viz versa.
The moister laden winds from oceans blowing towards land raises up and form clouds with condense as
rain,Rotation round of the earth with its axis gives winds their horizontal directions ,clouds,rain,hail stones,snow,fog,mist and etc,all are different graduations of the condemnation of atmosphere moisture when the moisture laden is cooled.Its contact with the surface of earth produces mist,when air cools about  to 1digree centigrade become water.Snow is formed when went like low or high water vapour  freezes directly into solid flakes with out going through the intermediate state of water drops.
GENERAL INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON HUMAN HEALTH AND WELL BEING.
Climate determines the energy level of of man in a given environment.In a tropical climate,to counteract the difficulty in heat loss ,man has adopted to a lower level of of heat production.The vital capacity in healthy young adults living near the equator only a little more than half of the vital capacity in similar individuals in a living in a temperate climate.An inverse relationship between tissue combustion and external temperature
exists.Subtropical and temperate climate are best suited to man s fullest efficiency as  moderate variations to maintain the vigour to improve progress. In the tropics the lowered general tissue vitality from the sluggish cellular combustion keeps human development motionless.Climate effects are well manifested during adaptation in contrast to completely adapted persons.In the same persons the physiological and metabolic
differences can also be the result of seasonal variations where such are marked.
THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON HEALTH.
Climate adversely influences human health directly by the effects of vagaries and extremes;indirectly by influencing mans metabolism or defensive mechanisms;and remotely by modifying his total environs.when direct adverse effects are caused when exposed to climatic extremes when the homeostatic mechanism fail
due to severity of or prolonged exposure or non-adaptability to the extremes,or physiological dysfunction.
Cold injuries like frost bite,heat injuries like heat stroke heat exhaustion sun burns and high altitude hypoxia,etc are the main adverse effects of cold and heat.Incidence of infection and illness,functional deficiency or inefficiency due to them are much commoner than due to direct influences.
FORECASTING OF WEATHER :weather forecasting helps us in planning for agricultural,navigational,aviational and other such activities which are influenced by weather conditions.It is also desirable to know the usual weather and climate conditions for planning of prevention and control of diseases,predict the levels of human efficiency,foresee the dangers of climatic extremes and vagaries on men
and plan for the prevention of their effects.
pmkutty